Reporting and Analyzing Cash Flows Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Detailing and Analyzing Cash Flows - Assignment Example In any case, the expenses of the stock has expanded, which will cause development of the amortization deteriorations (Murphy, 2000). Then again, if the hardware is utilized all the more adequately, the general creation and activity costs will lower. This non-money speculation is planned to improve the general execution of the Popowich Inc. Giving extra offers is the twofold end stick. From one viewpoint, it deteriorates the previously existing stocks, while then again this will assist with improving the company’s positions available by pulling in speculations. Monetary exercises of the organization are for the most part connected with the time and cash limitations. By the by, the money and non-money speculations of the Popowich Inc keep the organization from stagnation. Notwithstanding the way that the further monetary plans are obscure, if the current inclination is saved, the organization will abbreviate the long-and momentary notes that will assist with diminishing the liabilities. Also, the best possible capital planning will assist with controlling consumptions. As Murphy (2000) accentuates, the staying capital costs are commonly evaluated as per the benefit announced. Consequently, the financing movement of the Popowich Inc depends on the capital planning model. The drawn out liabilities of the organization speak to the positive propensity, as the organization is planned for shortening these purposes of the financial plan. The stockholders’ values are included into the system of drawing in financial specialists. In the light of this reality, it ought to be expressed that the company’s financing exercises structure the positive

The history of eyeglasses Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

The historical backdrop of eyeglasses - Essay Example Notwithstanding this early innovation, Ilardi shows that that reason it wasn’t accepted that these focal points had been accessible at this previous timeframe lays on an assortment of science-related components, including the late developments of the telescope and the magnifying instrument and a general doubt of the mutilations presented by the glass. He additionally presents the content of the records that had been found which comprise of a progression of letters between Duke Francesco Sforza of Milan to his inhabitant represetative in Florence, Nicodemo Tranchedini da Pontremoli with respect to eyeglasses in which the proof exists for the discount utilization of these specific focal points in adjusting vision if not in science. Befuddling the issue with respect to the birthplace of the eyeglass, however, are reports in China of comparable creations coming to them sooner than the Italian innovation. An article from 1936, Kaiming Chiu’s â€Å"The Introduction of Spectacles into China,† makes the case that scenes may have brought into China as right on time as the twelfth century, rolling in from Malacca â€Å"in the Western Regions.† According to the writer, this date was determined by looking at the first reports and investigating the plausible date in regards to when they were composed given what is thought about the life of the writer. This additionally puts displays in China in any event a century sooner than had been resolved dependent on readings of the Western writings, particularly the writings coming out of Italy. A huge piece of the disarray lives in the few printed mistakes remembered for the base work, demonstrated by further date examinations between when a work was composed and when the creator lived. Through this investigation, the creator presumes that while most of exhibitions were presumably acquainted with China in the late fourteenth century because of exchange with Western nations, there is proof that at any rate one Chinese man claimed a set

The Importance of Trading Psychology and Discipline

The Importance of Trading Psychology and Discipline Trading in the financial markets is a highly technical activity. To become successful as a trader, you need good understanding of the financial markets and how they work, you need a good understanding of the companies you trade in, you need the technical expertise to analyze market trends, as well as a great understanding of the factors that move the market.Still, even with all these technical skills, it is impossible to become a successful trader if you lack one key attribute â€" the trading psychology.The trading psychology is basically the right mindset and the ability to think on your feet, remain disciplined and exercise control over your emotions even when the market is going against your expectations.Wondering why I term trading psychology as the most important attribute of a successful trader?Consider the scenario below.A trader is watching the markets waiting for the right moment to get involved. Naturally, our trader is afraid of losing money, so it is understandable that h e is acting a bit cautiously.He waits for a better support line before getting into a trade, but then he misses the entry and the markets take off without him. Nothing to worry about though.He decides to wait a bit and catch the next wave, but because he is afraid of taking risks, he misses the next entry as well. This happens a number of times.While this is happening, our trader is talking to other trader friends and interacting with other traders in various online forums and groups.All the other traders are talking about the great profits they have made in the last couple of weeks, yet our trader has not entered a single trade.The fear of taking risks starts turning into greed. He starts feeling like he is missing out on all the profits others are making, and he starts feeling anxious and kind of frustrated, even if he has not lost any money.To avoid continuing missing out while others are making money, our trader decides to take a risk next time.Driven by greed, he throws all cau tion to the wind and jumps onto what seems to be a promising trend without conducting due diligence.Unfortunately, the markets turn around.Before, he wasn’t losing any money, but now he is, and instead of taking a loss, he decides to hold onto the trade in the hope that the markets will turn around and allow him to recoup the money he has just lost.Unfortunately, the trend continues, and he loses more money. The frustration of losing turns into anger, and he starts thinking of how to recoup all his money.Assuming that the markets cannot go any lower, he decides to put more money into the trade at this point so that he can cancel out his losses and make a tidy profit, because surely, there is no way the prices will keep falling.But as any successful trader knows, the markets are not rational, so the downward trend continues, and our trader ends up losing all his money.Depending on how much money he lost, our trader might even get into depression.The above is a great illustration of how allowing emotions to run amok can make you lose your better judgment and impact your success as a trader.Every successful trader knows that the markets are constantly testing traders, and anyone without the right psychological mindset and the ability to control his emotions will have a hard time making the right decisions.Aside from having the right mindset, traders also need the discipline to stick to their trading plans and strategies regardless of what the market throws at them. The above illustration is just one example of how your psychology can affect your trades.Below are several other trading issues that are usually caused by a trader’s psychology.Not taking loss: The typical reason behind this is usually that the trader is afraid of failure, which puts his ego at stake.Exiting trades too early: This is usually caused by the trader’s need for instant gratification. The trader is anxious and fearful that the position might reverse, so he decides to close the position to relieve the anxiety.Averaging down: This refers to situations where the trader is unwilling to admit that their trade is wrong. Hoping that the trade will come back, the trader adds onto the losing position. This is also caused by the trader’s ego.Wishing and hoping: This manifests itself when traders execute trades based on their hopes and wishes, rather than following the market situation.Compulsive trading: This happens when a trader gets addicted to trading, in similar fashion to how gamblers get addicted to gambling.Feeling invincible: After a series of winning trades, some traders might feel like they are invincible and in control of the markets. This often leads to risky trades.Second guessing your signals: This is often caused by the fear of failure and the fear of being wrong. Traders who second guess their signals usually have a hard time accepting that loss is a natural part of trading.Trading a large position size: This is often caused by the disillusionment that a trade can only turn out to be profitable, as well as poor risk management.Excessive trading: This is caused by greed, and a need to conquer the market. It can also be caused by anger, when a trader is trying to make up for previous losses.Being afraid to enter positions: This is usually caused by fear of failure, risk averseness, need for control fear of being ridiculed, or lack of a trading system.There are many more trading issues that are caused by the trader’s psychology, but these are by far the most common.When going through the above situations, you might have noticed that majority of psychology related issues are usually caused by three emotions â€" fear, greed and anger.These three emotions play a very significant role in a trader’s psychology, and any successful trader must learn how to put them in check.Let’s take a look at how these emotions might affect your trade.FEARFear is a natural human reaction to anything perceived as a threat â€" in the case of trading, t he threat is the possibility of losing money.The larger the potential loss, the bigger the amount of fear experienced. Fear during trading manifests itself in a number of ways.The most common manifestation of fear is being too afraid to get involved.Like our trader from the example up above, your fear of losing money makes you too cautious, and as a result, you end up missing all your entries.While being cautious is an important trait, being overly cautious to the extent of missing all your entries turns into a disadvantage, because you are not going to make any money in the market unless you actually get into trades.Sometimes, the fear might come when you have already entered a position.Some breaking news about the stock you are trading or the general market might cause a temporary movement in the market.In such situations, a fearful trader might be compelled to exit the position before their preplanned exit to avoid losing money.While such a fear-driven exit will help you avoid ce rtain loss, it also prevents you from making gains once the market recovers from the temporary volatility caused by the news.Alternatively, someone might exit a position early because they are afraid of holding a position for more than a day.The first key to overcoming fear as a trader is to understand that losing is a natural part of trading.It is impossible to trade without losing. Even the most successful traders experience losses from time to time.You can think of loss as the cost of doing the trading business.Once you understand that losing is a natural part of trading, your perspective changes from being afraid of loss to trying to manage your losses.One of the best ways to overcome fear by managing loss is to have a trading strategy. If you trade without a strategy, you are more likely to be swayed by your emotions.Having a strategy, on the other hand, keeps you grounded even when the markets seem to be going against you.For instance, if your strategy wins 70% of the time, yo u will be expecting a few losses here and there.Therefore, having one or two losing trades will not cripple you with fear, because you will be comfortable with such losses.Another way to overcome your fear is to start slowly and gradually build your trading experience. Instead of leaping into the waters hoping to make big bucks, start with stocks that have slow and small movements, and only trade small position sizes.As you get continue trading, you will gain a better understanding of the markets and what to expect, which will make you less fearful once you decide to start taking bigger and bigger risks.GREEDGreed is the opposite of fear.Whereas fear keeps you from trading or causes you to exit out of positions early because so as to avoid loss, greed pushes you into risky trades and causes you to hold positions for longer than you planned to with the hope of making huge gains.Greed is often caused by the fear of missing out (FOMO). This usually happens in one of two ways. The first one is where you see other people making huge gains in the market while you haven’t made any significant gains.In order not to miss out on the gains others are making, you abandon your trading strategy and enter trades at the wrong time.Alternatively, FOMO might also come into play when the market exceeds your expectations.A trend continues beyond your planned take profit levels, and instead of taking profit, you discard your strategy and continue holding the position because you are afraid of leaving more profits on the table.Unfortunately, if the markets reverse, all the gains you had made can easily get wiped out in a matter of seconds.As a trader, overcoming greed can be quite challenging, because it is often caused by the drive to do a little better or make slightly bigger gains.However, there are two main approaches to overcoming greed.The first one is to stop concerning yourself with what your friends and other traders are doing or the huge gains they are making.As a trade r, all your focus should be on your own trades and your own results.You should be driven by the desire to improve your trading strategy, rather than the desire to make what others are making.The second one is to have the discipline to stick to your plan.When coming up with a trade plan, there are no emotions involved. Instead, most traders come up with a trade plan based on a careful and rational analysis of the market.While it is definitely tempting to put aside the plan when things seem to be going well for you, if you want to become a successful trader, your best bet is to stick to the plan, learn what you can from the experience of leaving money on the table, and then put that new knowledge into consideration when coming up with a plan for your next trade.This way, you will gradually improve your trading strategy while at the same time learning to overcome your greed.ANGERThis emotion rears up its ugly head when you have been unable to control the other two emotions, resulting i n your trades going against your expectations. You start feeling frustrated.Anger is almost always targeted at something or someone â€" in this case, anger is usually targeted at the market. In a bid to get back at the market, angry traders will often find themselves engaging in revenge trading.For instance, let us assume that a trader is in a winning trade that has already reached the trader’s planned take profit point.However, due to inability to control his greed, instead of taking profit, the trader decides to continue holding the trade in the hopes of hitting a home run.Unfortunately, the market reverses and all his gains are wiped out.At this point, he is back to where he started. While the gains he had initially made have been wiped out, he still hasn’t made any loss.The thought of all the gains he had and failed to take, however, makes him angry and frustrated.Instead of closing the trade at this point, he might decide to wait for the market to reverse again so that he c an at least close with a slight profit.Unfortunately, this doesn’t happen, and his trade now goes into loss.Some traders might get off at this point, while others might even average down in the hope of recouping their losses, which will most likely lead to even greater losses.The key to preventing anger is to stick to your plan. Not only does this give you control over the other two emotions that lead to anger when they spin out of control, it also prevents you from making a mistake such as averaging down.HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR TRADING PSYCHOLOGY AND DISCIPLINEMost novice traders like to think that they are rational beings who will trade solely based on data and facts. As we have already seen, however, this is rarely the case.Unless you are not human, emotions will always come in and try to cloud your better judgment.The key to becoming a successful trader is to improve your trading psychology and discipline so that you can minimize the effect of emotions on your trading.Below, we ta ke a look at tips that will help you improve your trading psychology and discipline.Always Have a PlanIf you want to generate money through trading, you should treat it like a business.Would you invest your capital in a bakery, restaurant, or any other traditional business without a business plan? Probably not. Why then do people get into trading without a plan?If you want to make money with trading and avoid the psychological crunch that comes once the market decides to test you, you should go into every trade with a plan on how you intend to make money.Before getting into the trade, determine your entry point, determine your risk-reward tolerance, and determine how you will exit the trade â€" either through a predetermined profit target or a stop loss.Having a plan not only increases your chances of making money, it also gives you something to fall back on when things start going awry and your emotions start trying to influence your trade.However, having a plan is not all. You als o need to have the discipline to stick to your plan.A plan is absolutely useless if you are not going to follow it.Many are the traders who start with a plan only to abandon it when their emotions get into the picture.Therefore, you should make a commitment to yourself that you will stick to your plan no matter what happens in the market.This is one of the best ways of strengthening your trading mentality.Be Prepared to LoseRegardless of how good you are and how much analysis you have done, you can never be 100% certain how the trade will go.Therefore, as much as you want your every trade to be a winning trade, you should be prepared to lose.Before getting into the trade, take a moment to think about everything that could go wrong. Doing this has two advantages.First, thinking of all possible ways the trade could go wrong allows you to come up with a detailed plan on what to do in case this happens.Therefore, instead of having knee-jerk reactions when things don’t go as expected, you will already have thought about what to do in such cases.For instance, if the market is on an upward trend, before getting in, you should think about what point you will cut your losses in case the market reverses just after you enter a position.Second, thinking about losing gives you the opportunity to consider how it might feel in case your trade turns out to be a loser.This way, if the trade goes awry, your emotions won’t catch you unawares.Instead, you will already know what emotions to expect and will be better prepared to keep these emotions in check.Research Continuously to Increase Your Knowledge BaseConstantly increasing your knowledge is one of the best ways of improving your trading psychology.The more you know about the markets and their behavior, the better you will become at making decisions and navigating any curve balls that the markets might throw your way.When faced with a situation you have never experienced before, you are more likely to react to it calmly if you had read about it the week before.On the other hand, a trader realizing for the first time that such situations exist when there money is at stake is more likely to react with panic.Practice ContinuouslyThe popular saying that practice makes perfect is popular because it is true.No matter how much research you do, you are unlikely to learn everything about the market by research alone.The only way to learn about the market and what to expect from it is to trade and learn by yourself.In addition, practicing allows you to try what you have learnt. Think of it like riding a bicycle.No matter how much you read about riding a bicycle, the only way to learn to actually ride is to get on a bicycle and give it a try.Similarly, regardless of how much research you do, the only way to actually improve your trading psychology is to put what you learn into practice.Fortunately, many trading platforms and brokers provide demo accounts that allow you to practice without risking real money.W RAPPING UPWhile having the technical knowhow of trading is important, your trading psychology and discipline is equally important.Regardless of how much you plan and perform market analysis, not having control over emotions such as fear, greed and anger can easily lead you to abandon your trading plan and make poor decisions.This is why developing the right trading psychology and discipline is very critical to your success as a trader.Fortunately, you now know how the mental aspect of trading affects your career as a trader, and what to do in order to develop the right trading psychology.

Globalization A Short History - 1720 Words

Throughout history much has evolved in the world we live in today. Nations that were once empowering and controlled many parts of the world today are seen less superior and most likely to keep peace and order rather than starting violence. In Jujen Osterhammel and Niels P. Petersson’s book Globalization: A Short History, they investigate what led to globalization. They discuss events in history starting from the 1800s to the cold war era and what events led to globalization. Osterhammel and Petersson describe every event in details that have led to the world we live in today. From there discussion, it is seen that Europe was a dominating continent with its allies scattered all around the world. Britain was once the most empowering countries in the world followed by Japan. On the other hand, David Christian discusses in his essay This Fleeting World: An Overview of Human history, events that have also led to a modern era that we live in today. However, in Christian’s ess ay he does not only talk about the nations and their war against one another or the nations industrialization as a whole and growing economically as a nation but also mentions historical events such as women’s rights actions or the growth of media which are also factors that lead to globalization. Osterhammel, Petersson and Christian successfully argue that globalization has developed through nation’s industrialization growth; Britain being the first country to be industrialized and spread itsShow MoreRelatedIs Globalization Good for Workers? Definitions and Evidence from Latin America1118 Words   |  5 Pagesarguments and insights According to most economists, globalization is seen as a beneficial asset for workers, while on the other hand, various sociologists, anthropologists, and historians would beg to differ. 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Year Round Education - 1308 Words

Have you ever wondered what the difference between traditional schooling and year-round education is? Maybe you didn’t know that there are more than one type of year-round education. A year-round school schedule can benefit educators, students, and even families. Year-round schooling is where the breaks in school are on a balanced schedule. Instead of having a three month summer break, there would be 60 days off and then the students would be back to school. If on a multi track schedule, teachers could use their off time to substitute at their school on a different track or at another school to get paid more. For students, the shorter breaks away from school increase retention rates, therefore reducing the amount of review necessary at†¦show more content†¦When the teacher morale is increased, their quality of instruction increases which benefits students. One way students could benefit is that this schooling could provide them with an increased student centered instructional strategy during a year-round school year. These could be activities that activate prior knowledge, hands on projects, in depth discussions, and multiple intelligences. These learning experiences are highly effective, but they are also time consuming. On a multi track schedule, students could also be exposed to smaller classroom sizes, which could benefit the student giving them more time to themselves, and to their assigned teacher for extra instruction. Under a year-round schedule, the students benefit by having smaller breaks, meaning they can quickly snap back to previously learned information. When information is stored, but not used for an extended period of time, anyone can lose that information. Due to the shorter breaks, students may find it difficult to find a summer job, or a job at all, but there are jobs that work with students or maybe just limit thei r time at the workplace. For students that take place in extracurricular activities, the year-round schedule would mess with after school practices or competitions. The school could work with the surrounding community to get activitiesShow MoreRelatedYear Round Education Essay862 Words   |  4 PagesYear Round Education For more than twenty years the educational and economic benefits of year round schooling have been debated in the United States. Experts agree that year round schooling may not be the answer to the problems of all school districts. However in more than 205 districts nation wide, problems have been resolved by year round schooling. First I need to explain that this is different from extending the school year; on a year round schedule, students attend school the same numberRead More Education at a Year-Round School Essay3139 Words   |  13 PagesEducation at a Year-Round School Consider the following situation: A car is driving past the local elementary school on a hot and sunny July afternoon. As the car approached the school the driver notices some unusual things. Students are outside with the teachers for recess, and it looks as if school is in session. The school is on a year-round schedule. The driver is intrigued and decides to do some research. 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With the implementation of the Year â₠¬â€œ Round or â€Å"Balanced Calendar†, students have been given the opportunity to close those unnecessary gaps between school years and begin to even out â€Å"in-school† time throughout the year. Many parents and teachers consider this division of time conflicting when dealing with scheduling of community programs or additional summer employment opportunitiesRead MoreEssay about Year Round Education: A New Perspective2525 Words   |  11 PagesYear Round Education: A New Perspective Introduction Over the years we have gained aspect to all the new technologies and advancements that have improved the educational system. Each innovation has helped in some way or another to develop better academic programs in schools around the United States. Recently, a proposal has been made to change the traditional school year of nine-months to a year-round program that has sparked controversy all over. Despite controversy though, there areRead MoreThe Benefits of Year Round Education and Extended School Days2809 Words   |  12 PagesYear round education (YRE) is implemented in 436 U.S. school districts with very few complaints. In fact, school districts that have been participating in YRE and extended school days (ESD) are raving about the benefits in pupils achievement level, their new found enthusiasm in learning, as well as the many programs that exist in the extended day promoting the decline in latch key children. Some schools decided to initiate YRE and ESD because of swelling enrollments and lack of student achievementRead More The Benefits of Year Round Education and Extended School Days2729 Words   |  11 Pages Year round education (YRE) is implemented in 436 U.S. school districts with very few complaints. In fact, school districts that have been participating in YRE and extended school days (ESD) are raving about the benefits in pupils achievement level, their new found enthusiasm in learning, as well as the many programs that exist in the extended day promoting the decline in latch key children. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Some schools decided to initiate YRE and ESD because of swelling enrollments

Cost Classifications Free Essays

Associate Level Material Cost Classifications Consult Ch. 6 7 of Health Care Finance and other sources to complete the form. This worksheet requires you to match the definitions and examples of types of cost, and the types of centers where costs occur. We will write a custom essay sample on Cost Classifications or any similar topic only for you Order Now Part 1: For each term in Column A, select the correct definition from Column B on the right. Write the corresponding letter of the definition next to the term. |Column A | F |Indirect costs | |A |Direct costs | |D |Fixed costs | |I |Variable costs | |E |Step-fixed costs | |H |Responsibility centers | |B |Revenue centers | |C |Cost centers | |G |Shadow cost centers | Column B – Definitions | | | |Costs incurred directly as a result of providing a specific service or good | |Centers charged with controlling costs and generate revenue | |Have no revenue budget and no obligation to earn revenue | |Costs that do not vary as service volume varies | |Fixed over some range of service volume, but rise to a new level for a higher range of service | |volume | |Costs that cannot be tied directly to the patient’s stay in the bed | |Exist as budgets on paper only | |The places where costs occur and have budgets | |Costs that change as volume changes | Part II: For each real-world example, select the correct term from the list on the left. Write the corresponding letter of the real-world example next to the term. |Column A | |K |Indirect costs | | N |Direct costs | |Q |Fixed costs | |M |Variable costs | |R |Step-fixed costs | |J |Responsibility centers | |O |Revenue centers | |l |Cost centers | |P |Shadow cost centers | Column B – Real-World Examples | |A subunit of a larger organization that is responsible for some type of budget, such as the payroll| |department or courier service | |Shares of depreciation, administration division, or laundry service | |Administration, human resources, or housekeeping | |Utility bill, supplies, or maintenance | |Nursing care, food consumed, drugs administered | | | |Hospital cafeteria, gift shop, or parking ramp | |Depreciation of hospital equipment | |Building loan payment, building insurance, or cable or internet service | |The nurse-to-patient ratio on the cardiac unit is one to t hree patients. There are four nurses | |scheduled for 12 patients. During the second shift, three more patients are admitted. The nurse | |manager calls in a fifth nurse. | Part III: Select two choices from Part II and explain why they meet that cost classification. Places such as hospital cafeteria, gift shop, or parking ramp are classified as revenue centers. These are classified in this way because they are used for interaction and to produce profits from goods that are sold in that department or unit. A loan payment, insurance, or cable/internet service is classified as a fixed cost. Fixed costs are known as costs that do not vary depending on the services given. These costs are endured every month and at a standard, fixed rate for the company. How to cite Cost Classifications, Essay examples

Should the American Government have to pay reparations to Native Americans Essay Example

Should the American Government have to pay reparations to Native Americans? Essay Since time immemorial, the issue on land ownership is very chaotic because men are willing to wage war just to get hold of a piece of land. In primitive times, a certain ethnic group skirmishes with other ethnic groups over territorial supremacy. Land ownership is a bloody business because of the price it entails. When a certain assembly successfully dominated other’s land it means that their goal to expand their territory is realized, but most importantly, domination of a territory also implies that the dominator also take control of the resources of the grabbed territory. And worst, it has been a practice that the dominator of a territory would likely use the people of their grabbed land, and eventually treat them as slaves. In 1830’s a prominent execution of land grabbing transpired in North America between President Andrew Jackson’s administration and the Native Americans, and more specifically to the Cherokees. During this period, President Jackson endorsed a law that was designed to eliminate the Indian people in their own territory and relocate the latter in other places[1]. The ratification of Indian Removal Act took many years of trial but eventually did not succeeded because the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Native Americans. The objective of the said policy is to exchange lands with Native Americans and to eliminate them from thriving in west of the river Mississippi. According to President Jackson, during the deliberation of Indian Removal Act, that he was so concerned of the plight of the Indians because as civilization progresses and as the whites increasingly occupy the land, the Native Americans conditions are being jeopardize[2]. At its first implementation, the Choctaw and the Chickasaw was successfully relocated. But the Seminole and the Cherokees did not falter, they resisted all forms of aggression of land grabbing because they believed that no one owe their ancestral lands. Desperate measures was implemented, violence against Indians was manifested by use of arms and force. Seminole people triumphed in Second Seminole War against the massive troops of military and volunteers. But in the third installment of war the Seminole people was defeated[3]. The last remaining tribe was the Cherokees, and in a very unfortunate event, they were forced to engage in death march, which was later on called Trail of Tears. President Jackson’s administration successfully seized the ancestral lands of the Indian tribes, but its promise of better life, equal opportunities, and relocation is nothing but a farce. The Indian tribes did not receive a permanent land that they can rebuild their lives. The policy failed to reinforce a voluntary expulsion, and worst, their dreams and promises was decimated due to fraudulent land agreements. This historical event is the foundation of a human right debate about the moral responsibilities of Americans to Native Americans[4]. According to human right advocators, the means to fulfill this moral responsibility is through reparations. In this paper, I will provide a nitty-gritty discussion of reparations such as its definition, elements and significance. The paper will also outline several standpoints in line with anti-reparations. And most importantly, this paper will provide arguments pro reparations. The Americans must necessarily pay reparations to Native Americans to lessen interracial issues because they have deprived the latter of something that they own. The Americans should pay the Native Americans for the moral damages that they caused the latter, specifically for grabbing their ancestral lands, for providing them fraudulent promises, and for puttin g their lives on jeopardy. And lastly, the Americans should provide reparations for Native Americans to alleviate their existing condition because the effect of their acts is still existent among Native Americans, meaning, the latter is still suffering from the ill-fated event, which was catapulted by the Americans. We will write a custom essay sample on Should the American Government have to pay reparations to Native Americans? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Should the American Government have to pay reparations to Native Americans? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Should the American Government have to pay reparations to Native Americans? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The Debate Since the concept of reparation is the core of this debate, it is a necessity that we provide a definition of the term. Lexically speaking, reparation is an act of amending and alleviating one’s suffering due to the committed wrongdoings of others. But in terms of moral duty, reparation can be defined given the following criteria: 1) acting responsibly upon the crime of the past, 2) restoration of dignity and reinstatement of property that has been loss, 3) refurbishing the moral animosity between two parties, specifically of the aggressed and the aggressor, and 4) reconciliation of the aggressed and the aggressor’s differences. Having defined reparation, it is now justifiable to lay down the arguments on the validity of why Americans must necessarily pay reparations for Native Americans. First reason is the fact that Americans undeniably deprived the Indians of the latter’s own property and rights. It has been established on natural law that man will own a certain property if he cultivated it and nourished it. In terms of land ownership, one can claim a certain land if he developed and took care of it. And this practice has been considered before the conceptualization of the law. When one develops and nourishes a piece of land, he automatically acquires rights over it. Ancestral land is the embodiment of all the efforts that a group of people exerted to ensure that a piece of land is well taken care of[5]. But man created laws, which aims to advance human welfare and human progress. Objectivists argue that when laws are created it overpower natural laws because the former curtails the primitive nature of the latter, and eventually promotes interest of the majority. In case of the Native Americans, objectivists postulated that the deprivation of their property and rights are permissible because this deprivation is geared towards a better end, which is to protect their culture from the increasing population of the whites and the advancement of the majority’s interests. Therefore, the objectivists concluded that Americans does not own anything from the Indians because when the law was enacted for the progression of human welfare, the Indian’s concept of property and rights has been superseded [6] However, advancing interests in expense of other’s interests is morally unjustifiable because it does not only curb one’s rights but also annihilate one’s existence, in the sense that in the pursuant of the law people go to the extreme just to ensure that the interests was promoted[7]. It must also be noted that majority’s concern does not always perpetuate a reasonable act, or to put it simply, majority is not always right. In the case of the Native Americans, President Jackson created a law in the guise of the Indians concerns, stating that their culture will be jeopardized if they will not be relocated. But the truth is, the law was created for the majority’s volitions to dominate an ancestral land and to economically use it. In the end, the Indians culture was catastrophically destroyed and was left with nothing. The Americans enjoy the fruit of other’s labors, while those who preserved and cultivated the land for hundreds of years were s uffering from poverty. It has been established that a law is a law. But a law is not a law when it violates other’s rights. The law must only protect the majority of the population but the entirety of the population. It must serve everyone’s interests regardless of ethnicity, beliefs, culture, and practices. Secondly, the American government should pay reparations to Native Americans for all moral damages that they have done. When President Jackson government took over the ancestral land of the Indian tribes they did not provide them any payment or any land title. In order to pursue mass mobilization of Native Americans, the government misled these people through providing them fraudulent promises such as the assurance of better life and better land location, though in reality there is not better future awaiting the Indian tribes. According to documents, Native Americans jumped from place to place because the government failed to provide them a permanent place to live. This happenstance is also considered as a medium to diminish Indian culture[8]. Â  When the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Native Americans, President Jackson blatantly ignored this ruling; instead, he let his administration to engage in manslaughter, almost to the point of genocide. These acts are morally damaging a nd morally unjustifiable. The moral problem of taking over one’s own property is the undeniable fact that while the American government is succumbing themselves to the benefits of other’s property, those who must taste the fruit of their property is suffering from deprivation[9]. And the worst part of it; those perpetrators of wrongdoings do not even initiate any acts of alleviating the sufferings of the Indian people, or even sharing the benefits of that property. On the other hand, the immorality of deceiving people is basically founded on the concept of veracity. Lying in expense of others is awfully wrong because by doing so, others existence are put into dangerous situation. In the Native American terms, they were deceived by the American administration to let them fall from the pit of vicious and cyclic affliction. And the immorality of disposing one’s life is unforgivable, how much more if we let hundreds of people died because of the interest that we wan t to realize. Killing someone is never valid especially if the reason was only based on the need to expand territories. Tenets of anti-reparations argue that President Jackson’s act was reasonable because it was geared towards a better end, and that the consolidation of United States of America. They posited that if this act was not implemented United States will not reach its present status. They also added that in aiming for revolution or changes to guarantee a brighter future, chaos is of necessity. Progress should not be impeded because there is a minority that will endure pain and suffering. Therefore, they affirmed that if violence will be a necessary element of progression, then violence must be used because the situation necessitates it. Proponents of dirty hands politics furthered this kind of advocacy because also see a better consequences of the act. Dirty hand politics is a predicament when one is face to decide between two immoral acts but one must choose the lesser evil[10]. And in this case, the moral dilemma is between choosing the progression of humanity in expense of a specifi c ethnic group or letting this specific ethnic group to stay on their ancestral land in exchange of human’s progression. And since the advocators of this kind of politics always look at the interest of the majority, they uphold the importance of human progress in expense of an ethnic group because this decision is of lesser evil. The postulate on significance of human progress is novel and valid; however, it should not resort to any act of deception and violence. It is a contradiction to promote human progress in expense of human lives. Tenets of anti-reparations were correct in saying that because of President Jackson enactment of Indian Removal Act paved way for the consolidation of our nation. But it must be noted that it does not satisfy the evilness and the cruelty that these Indian people had experienced[11]. The advocators of dirty hand politics was mistaken in saying that we have to choose lesser evil for the betterment of humanity because it misconstrued the concept of what is right and of what acts are morally justified. The danger about these kinds of beliefs is that people can always use the alibi of lesser evil to make their immoral acts seems to be right. And worst, it confuses our delineation between being humane and inhumane because we can always opt to do things that are innately inhumane but argue that we engaged ourselves to such act because the situation calls for decision, and we just choose what lesser evil is[12]. Lastly, the Americans should provide reparation among Native Americans because the latter is still agonizing from the aftermath of act of the former. Up to this modern period, most Native Americans do not own anything specifically of land property. The sad thing about the plight of American Indians is that because of the Indian Removal Act most people thought that they are already nonexistent. The American government does only provide a poor relief as a form of reparation to Indians because what they lost is actually priceless, but giving them permanent settlements, opportunities to broaden their horizon, and most importantly, to give them due respect to rebuild their dignity. For the longest time, Native Americans are not receiving enough aid from the government that is why their emotional wounds and their spiritual scars have incarcerated from the past. The help that has been long due is still not delivered to those who deserve it. The lives of Americans Indians are not yet allevia ted because as of the time being, they have not receive justice from any injustices that Jackson’s administration has cast upon them. The sufferings of the American native are insurmountable, and reparations is not enough to compensate it, still reparation must be given to them because it can somehow reduce their burdens[13]. Proponents of anti-reparations argue that mistakes of the past should not be transferred to the future because there is not connection between the two time frames. According to them, the unlawful activities of past should only be attributed to the past because the future generations do not participate in that unlawful activities. Having said this, if the past generation failed to provide reparation for Native American it does not necessarily follow that future generation must fulfill the lacking of past generation. They also added that reparation is futile because it will answer the needs of the Native Americans, and significantly, it will not restore things that they have lost along the way. Anti-reparation advocates conjectured the four reasons why reparations should not be executed among Native Americans. First, they see that reparation will be the unfair to the state because there is no means to qualify and quantify those Indians who deserved the reparations. If reparation is giv en, most likely, those who will take pleasure in it are those descendants of the past, meaning, they have not experienced any cruelty at all, therefore, reparations must not be given. Second, if implementation of reparations is possible still the state must ask for entitlement to differentiate those who must earn it and those who do not, then it will not be unfair to the state and to the present generation. But how can Native American prove their entitlement? Third, if entitlement was proven then they must also establish that their current condition is directly affected by the past wrongdoings. And lastly, since the funds for the reparations will be taken from the pork barrels, which was earned through the taxpayers, it unjust because it must be allocated to serve the interest of the taxpayers. To sum it up, proponents of anti-reparations vehemently disagree in compensating the wrong of the past in expense of the present and future generations[14]. Tenets of anti-reparations overlooked on point in this whole debate, the American government push through their cruelty and atrocities towards the Native Americans to ensure a brighter future and a better life for their future generations. Given this realization, American government must compensate for the wrongdoings of their predecessor since they also harvested from it. The anti-reparation advocators do not want to pay damages that past administration has done in expense of the present and future generation, when in principle the past generation had pursued their own volition in expense Native Americans’ past, present and future generations. They are right that crimes of the past should be crimes of the past, in so far as these crimes are not executed in principle of future generations. It is right that future generation does not directly participate in that immoral activities, but they have the power to correct it. Instead, they continue the practice of their ancestors. Th e criteria that these proponents proposed are very much limited to the issue of being unfair to the state without looking how the state became unfair to the Native Americans[15]. The issue of reparation will not be settled because Native Americans are incessantly deprived of their property and rights, and the future generation is not acting to annihilate this deprivation. And lastly, the talk of proving one’s entitlement and establishing one’s condition is irrelevant because when Indian Removal Act was carried out not only the lives of Indian tribes was jeopardized but also their future, and the future of their generation. The reason behind this is simple; everything that Native Americans own was robbed from them[16]. CONCLUSION: In toto, the anti-reparation proponents suggested that we must move on and forget about what happens in the past because they uphold that the most important thing is the present condition and our visions for the future. But humanity can only move on if all wounds and miseries have been healed and resolved. The desolation of the past remains up to this modern day period because it was not yet answered, and if this will never be medicated it will haunt us in the future. Reparation may not totally heal the wounds and resolved the sufferings still it is important because it can alleviate the situation. The problem is humungous and deeply rooted, meaning, it cannot be decipher over night. Medicating this problem needs a step by step process, and we can start this by reparation and not by purporting escape goat reasoning or even forgetting it as if nothing happens. Reparation should be done at all cost because Native Americans have been deprived of things that they should enjoy, they have been morally damaged due to inhumane acts, and the effects of American government atrocities is still lingering on[17]. nbsp;

Frederick McKinley Jones

Frederick McKinley Jones Frederick McKinley Jones was one of the most prolific black inventors and held over 60 patents at the time of his death. Some of his most important work changed the way we store and transport our food, and altered the transportation and grocery industries forever. Fast Facts: Frederick McKinley Jones Born: May 17, 1893 in Cincinnati, OhioDied: February 21, 1961 in Minneapolis, MinnesotaKnown For: Inventor who revolutionized the refrigeration industry and held over 60 patentsEducation: Orphaned at a young age, Jones had little formal education, but he taught himself automobile mechanics and became an engineerAwards and Honors: First African American elected to the  American  Society  of Refrigeration Engineers, and first African American to be awarded a National  Medal  of Technology (posthumously)   Early Years A native of Cincinnati, Ohio, Frederick McKinley Jones was born on May 17, 1893, to an Irish father, John Jones, and an African American mother. By the time he was 7 years old, his mother had deserted the family, and his father sent him to live with a Catholic priest in a rectory in Covington, Kentucky, just across the Ohio River from Cincinnati. While in Kentucky, young Fredericks father passed away, essentially leaving him an orphan. When he was 11, Jones decided hed had enough of living with the priest, so he ran away and returned to Cincinnati. During his teen years, he found work doing odd jobs around the city, and soon found he had a natural aptitude for automobile mechanics. He also began to read a lot, although he had little formal education. At 19, he traveled north to a farm in Hallock, Minnesota, where he took a job doing mechanical labor on the farm machinery, and soon was able to obtain an engineering license. When war broke out, Jones enlisted in the U.S. Army, where he was in high demand for his mechanical abilities. He spent much of the war making repairs to machines and other equipment, as well as maintaining communications systems at the front. After his military service ended, he returned to the farm in Minnesota. Inventions While living at the Hallock farm, Jones began to take an interest in electronics, and read as much as he could on the subject. According to Biography.com, When the town decided to fund a new radio station, Jones built the transmitter needed to broadcast its programming. He also developed a device to combine  moving  pictures with sound. Local businessman Joseph A. Numero subsequently hired Jones to improve the sound equipment he produced for the film industry. Numeros company, Cinema Supplies, was excited about Jones inventions, and within a few years, the two of them would form a partnership. Frederick McKinley Jones, inventor, refrigeration expert and cofounder of Thermo King Corp., holding a model of his refrigerated railroad car. Bettmann Archive / Getty Images Mobile Refrigeration In the 1930s, it was risky to transport perishable products. Grocery shipments were typically limited to short distances; ice melted quickly, and any sort of  electronic refrigeration unit required a layover at a power source, which delayed delivery time. However, by 1938, Jones believed he had found a solution, and in 1940 he obtained a patent for the first practical transport refrigeration unit for the trucking industry. Jones designed a portable air-cooling device, which included an undercarriage gasoline motor sturdy enough to handle the jolts of long-distance travel. Early modifications made the units even smaller and lighter, and moved them to the over-the-cab mount that is still in use on refrigeration trucks today. Suddenly, people in rural or isolated areas could have access to fresh produce, meat, and dairy items all year long. Further advancements soon led to standardized refrigerated containers which could be utilized on a truck, ship, or train, all without the need of unloading and repacking. The transport refrigeration industry boomed with the creation of these refrigerated boxcars, all of which used Jones technology. Together with Numero, who sold Cinema Supplies, Jones formed the U.S. Thermo Control Company, which grew rapidly in the 1940s. During World War II, the company provided refrigeration units that were used to help preserve not only food, but also blood and medicine for the military. In addition, U.S. Thermo Control cooling products were built into the cockpits of bombers and ambulance planes, and also provided air conditioning to personnel in field hospitals. Near the end of the war, Jones became the first African American inducted into the  American  Society  of Refrigeration Engineers, and by 1949, U.S. Thermo Control- which later became Thermo King- was worth several million dollars. Throughout the 1950s, Jones did consultant work for the Department of Defense, the Bureau of Standards, and other branches of the government. Although he is best known for his work with refrigeration units, during his lifetime, Frederick Jones patented over 60 inventions. He created X-ray machines, small and large engines, and sound equipment for radio and film production, generators, and even a machine that dispensed paper tickets. Jones passed away in Minneapolis, after a battle with lung cancer, on February 21, 1961. In 1977, he was inducted into the Minnesota Inventors Hall of Fame. Thirty years after his death, President George H.W. Bush awarded the National  Medal  of Technology posthumously to Jones and Numero, presenting the awards to their widows in the White House Rose Garden. Jones was the first African American to receive the National  Medal  of Technology. Sources â€Å"Frederick Jones.†Ã‚  Biography.com, AE Networks Television, 19 Jan. 2018, www.biography.com/people/frederick-jones-21329957.â€Å"Frederick McKinley Jones.†Ã‚  The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed, Encyclopedia.com, 2019, www.encyclopedia.com/people/science-and-technology/technology-biographies/frederick-mckinley-jones.â€Å"Frederick McKinley Jones.†Ã‚  Invent.org, National Inventors Hall of Fame, 2007, www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/343.html.â€Å"Frederick McKinley Jones: How Has He Transformed the Scene?†Ã‚  Richard G. (Gurley) Drew, www.msthalloffame.org/frederick_mckinley_jones.htm.

Quotes About Long Distance Relationships

Quotes About Long Distance Relationships It is said that absence makes the heart grow fonder- this is probably why lovers who are apart spend most of their time thinking about each other. If you are living away from your beloved, then there might be a long distance love quote below that will provide you with some comfort. Making Long Distance Work Many people who have been in long distance relationships have confessed that it is tough to stay committed when your partner lives across time zones and continents. Practical considerations such as the difference in time zone, cultures, lifestyle, and attitude draw couples apart. Lack of physical contact  also contributes to the gnawing chasm between two lovers. So are long distance relationships practical? Should couples who live apart reconsider their career or lifestyle choices so that they can accommodate the relationship? Rationale dictates that to keep a relationship alive and energetic, lovers need to be together as often as possible. So you can schedule a recess in your work or study routine to factor in a romance holiday. Make sure to keep aside all other work obligations when you are with your sweetheart. Long distance love can work if both partners are willing to accept the difference in lifestyle. Here are some long distance love quotes that can help stoke the flame of passion. Quotes on Long-Distance Romance George Eliot: What greater thing is there for two human souls that to feel that they are joined... to strengthen each other... to be at one with each other in silent unspeakable memories.Anonymous: Love puts the fun in together, the sad in apart, and the joy in a heart.Thomas Fuller: Absence sharpens love, presence strengthens it.Robert Dodsley:One kind kiss before we part,Drop a tear and bid adieu;Though we sever, my fond heartTill we meet shall pant for you.Francois de la Rouchefoucauld: Absence diminishes small loves and increases great ones, as the wind blows out the candle and blows up the bonfire.Roger de Bussy-Rabutin: Absence is to love as wind is to fire; it extinguishes the small and kindles the great.Richard Bach: Can miles truly separate you from friends? If you want to be with someone you love, arent you already there?Anonymous: Absence makes thy heart grow fonder.Anonymous: I hate the stars because I look at the same ones as you do, without you.Anonymous:A part of you h as grown in me.And so you see, its you and meTogether forever and never apart,Maybe in distance, but never in heart. Khalil Gibran: And ever has it been known that love knows not its own depth until the hour of separation.Jon Oliva:If I go awayWhat would still remain of me?The ghost within your eyes?The whisper in your sighs?You see... BelieveAnd Im always there.Kay Knudsen: Love is missing someone whenever youre apart, but somehow feeling warm inside because youre close in heart.Hans Nouwens: In true love the smallest distance is too great, and the greatest distance can be bridged.George Eliot: That farewell kiss which resembles greeting, that last glance of love which becomes the sharpest pang of sorrow.Anonymous: If the only place where I could see you was in my dreams, Id sleep forever.Pam Brown: Odd how much it hurts when a friend moves away- and leaves behind only silence.Edward Thomas: The simple lack of her is more to me than others presence.

Environmental services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Environmental services - Essay Example awareness in Allen County may lead to significantly high amount of recycled water being diverted to non-cooking and drinking activities (Fleming 21-5). A projected 10 years’ timeline may lead to increased shortage of clean water for drinking and cooking in the highlighted county since the advisory service on recycled waste water is speculated to be withdrawn. With limited water to drink and cook, the county will have to grapple with increased cost of living from outsourcing water. There are high chances that withdrawal of the consultancy services on the economic suitability of recycled waste water for drinking and other domestic consumption will affect this county at large (Fleming 54-8). The issue will be used for political ride by various interested individuals and that may degenerate into greater policy recommendations. It is also worth to note that such retrogressive mentality against using recycled wastewater for domestic consumption will translate to reduced staff of the wastewater treatment firms like Clean Water Ozone systems. The result is loss jobs, reduced income and a slump in economic progress in the entire county through multiplier

Best war ever Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Best war ever - Essay Example How to make this Planet Earth heaven-like? The answer is simple and straightforward. Eyes full of understanding, hearts full of love and the life that refuses conflicts-enough, these alone are enough! But when the war is declared, the objective of the country involved in the war, is to win the war, no matter how it wins! The advanced technology was brutally used in World War II, and it served very well, the ultimate purpose of any war—to win the war, to end the war and to secure peace! The main objective of the war-related technology is to win the war with minimum casualties. Technologically, America was superior on all counts than its enemies in war. It helped to contain and defeat its foremost enemy, Japan. To start with, â€Å"Japan’s naval technology and fighting methods, innovative in the beginning-stages of the war, quickly lagged behind the Allies. Japan lost naval air-battles because its ships and planes did not have the radar.†(Adams, p.62) Air-power dominated during II World War. There was not much difference in their roles like reconnaissance, bombers, fighters and ground-support though each area was technologically far advanced. Some additional roles were seen for the aircrafts in WW II. Airlift the fighting forces and move quickly high-priority supplies, strategic bombing, targeted bombing of the civilian areas to hamper enemy industrial production and inflict casualties to destroy the morale. At the beginning of the war aeronautical warfare played limited role and little success was achieved. But actions at Pearl Harbor, the South China Sea, Taranto, and the Coral Sea changed the complexion of the war. America had the decided advantage in technology. â€Å"For many, including a majority of survivors from the era, the war years have become America’s golden age, a peak in the life of society when everything worked out and the good guys

Essay --

What is Schizophrenia? Schizophrenia is brain disorder that makes it hard to see the difference between reality and imagination, have normal emotional responses, and act normal in social situations. Schizophrenia is relatively young, it has only been around for less than 100 years. It was first discovered by Dr. Emile Kraeplin in 1887. He believed it was a mental illness. A few documents take Schizophrenia’s origins back to Egypt during the Pharaoh’s rule around 1550 B.C. People originally thought schizophrenia was simply madness, and usually associated it with madness, even though it is quite different from madness. Symptoms of this disease include Positive symptoms, which are: hallucinations, or things that someone can see, feel, smell, or hear that do not really exist. Many people hear voices inside their heads, see people that are not there, or smell odors no one else smells. Delusions are another symptom, also known as bizarre beliefs, these may include paranoid de lusions also, which are delusions that tell the person that others are trying to hurt them. Thought Disorders are a symptom in which the person thinks unusually or dysfunctionally. Movement disorders may be present in schizophrenic people, they may seem like twitches or small, sharp, and sudden movements. Schizophrenia’s â€Å"negative symptoms† are harder to recognize. These include the flat affect, in which the persons face doesn’t move and the voice is droning. The lack of pleasure in life is another once, along with the lack of ability to start and sustain activities, and little speech. These symptoms prevent or block the person from living a normal life because they cause social, physical, and emotional, and mental problems. This may lead to psychosis, insanity, or ... ...ients that suffer severe symptoms. The most common treatment is a combination of medicine and therapy. Where the patient engages in individual psychotherapy with a therapist, rehabilitation, family education, or self help groups. These therapies usually help people cope with schizophrenia and its effects. At this time there is no cure for schizophrenia, there are very effective treatments and medications. Research is being conducted to help scientists understand the disorder better and is being used to try to treat schizophrenia permanently. The only way this is possible is with the use of new treatments, such as new experimental drugs and electrotherapy. No treatments today are preventative nor do they permanently â€Å"cure† schizophrenia, but we can look to the bright future for the development of a new treatment option that could potentially fully cure schizophrenia.

Internal Factors Affect Change of Leadership in Organization

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www. emeraldinsight. com/1753-8351. htm IJWHM 2,1 Work-related health attributions: their impact on work attitudes ? ? Sara Goransson, Katharina Naswall and Magnus Sverke 6 Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden Abstract Purpose – The purpose of this study is to introduce the concept of work-related health attributions and investigate the effects of such perceptions as well as of health status on work-related attitudes and turnover intentions.Design/methodology/approach – Building on attribution theory, the study tests the assumption that negative work-related health attributions impair employee work-related attitudes and intentions, and moderate the relation between health status and work-related attitudes. Cross-sectional questionnaire data from 785 Swedish retail white-collar workers are collected to test these assumptions by utilizing moderated regression analyses.Find ings – The results show that negative work-related health attributions are related to lower levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment as well as higher levels of turnover intention, even after controlling for demographics, work climate variables, and mental distress. Further, the signi? cant interaction between attributions and mental distress indicates that it makes a difference for employees’ turnover intentions if an individual with high mental distress attributes it to work or not.Practical implications – Work-related health attributions should be taken into account in order to avoid impaired levels of employee work motivation. The measure introduced renders it possible to identify and help those individuals who believe that work affects their health negatively. Originality/value – The results underscore the relevance of how individuals think their health is affected by their work, and contributes to the understanding of how health stat us relates to work-related attitudes.Since the measure of work-related health attributions is easily administered it is also valuable for practitioners working with employee health and attitudes. Keywords Personal health, Job satisfaction, Employee turnover, Sick leave, Sweden Paper type Research paper International Journal of Workplace Health Management Vol. 2 No. 1, 2009 pp. 6-21 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 1753-8351 DOI 10. 1108/17538350910945974 1. Introduction The high rates of sick leave and the evidence regarding the effects of work on employee health in general have received increased attention in both research and media as of ? ate (Catalan Matamoros et al. , 2007). This increased attention, along with the importance of work and health to individuals, is likely to have contributed to an increased interest among employees in how work actually affects their health (Harding and Hikspoors, 1995; Harpaz, 2002; Kallenberg and Larsson, 2000). The Third European Study on Wor king Conditions indicates, for instance, that 27 percent of employees believe that their health and safety are at risk because of their work (European Foundation, 2001).Further, a Swedish study on persons on long-term sick-leave found that 66 percent of those asked named work as the underlying cause for ? their sick-leave (Goransson et al. , 2002). Moreover, Ettner and Grzywacz (2001) found that individuals’ perceptions of how work affects health tend to differ between different work situations, even after dispositional differences were controlled for. None of these studies, however, have studied how employee attitudes and behavioral intentions may be affected by such a negative view of how work affects health.We introduce the concept of work-related health attributions, which we argue may add to the understanding of the factors that contribute to variation in job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and the will to stay with the organization. Whereas numerous studies hav e documented ill-health at work to be related to low job satisfaction (Bradley and Cartwright, 2002; Fairbrother and Warn, 2001; Judge and Watanabe, 1993; Spector, 1997; Wright and Bonett, 2007), low organizational commitment (Leong et al. 1996; Mathieu and Zajac, 1990), as well as turnover cognitions and behaviors (Houkes et al. , 2001; Lee, 1988; Wright and Bonett, 2007), a closer examination of these studies reveals that there are differences in the strength of the association between ill-health and various outcomes depending on the measures used, but also between studies using the same measures. We propose that work-related health attributions can be an important part of the mechanism determining the relationship between ill-health and various outcomes.It is likely that an individual who is not feeling well and who attributes this to factors at work will be less satis? ed with work, less committed, and more prone to leave the organization, compared to an individual with same lev el of ill-health but who does not associate their health status with factors at work. The purpose of the present study is to investigate whether negative work-related health attributions are separate from ill-health, and if the concept contributes to the understanding of negative attitudes towards the job and the organization, and turnover intentions. . 1. Work-related health attributions Work-related health attributions concern the degree to which the individual considers working conditions to be a strong contributing factor to her health status. The perceived contribution of work to health can be positive, negative, or none at all. We propose that work-related health attributions represent an important factor in explaining the link between health and work-related attitudes.By taking work-related health attributions into account it is possible to study differences between those who experience ill-health and attribute this to working conditions and others with ill-health which they do not believe is caused by work. According to attribution theory, people tend to look for causes for events and situations they experience (Michotte, 1963; Weiner, 1985; Stratton, 1997), especially when the outcome is negative, such as in the case of ill-health.Work-related health attributions, then, can be viewed as a type of attribution, since they entail the individual’s explanation of events (in this case how work in? uences health). Furthermore, work-related health attributions focus on how the individual evaluates the contribution of work to her current or future health status, implying that even if the individual currently does not experience any ill-health due to work, she may see a risk of work affecting her health negatively if the situation does not change.Drawing on theories on social representation (e. g. Moscovici, 2000), we also suggest that beliefs are formed from individuals’ experiences as well as socially created and shared ideas and knowledge in gr oups. Such knowledge may consist of health complaints and sickness absence among people surrounding an individual, as well as the way work and its in? uence on health is discussed in research and media (see, for ? example, Catalan Matamoros et al. , 2007), and is important in shaping the individual’s perceptions of the impact of working conditions on health.Thus, negative work-related health attributions may arise both from an individual’s own experiences of a negative impact of work on health and from the individual’s awareness of a connection between Work-related health attributions 7 IJWHM 2,1 8 work and ill-health in the organization and society. The social aspects in the formation of attributions have been observed in previous research such as, for instance, a study where it was found that norms and social debate affected the overall attitude towards absenteeism in organizations (Van Vuuren et al. 2003). At this point, one important distinction should be ma de. We consider work-related health attributions to be separate from actual ill-health at work. Actual ill-health is a general concept and takes a person’s current health status and well-being into account, including such factors as problems with social functioning, sleeping problems, low self-esteem, and depression. Work-related health attributions, on the other hand, are work-focused and entail to what extent individuals perceive that work in? ences health, and do not have to be connected to actual symptoms or health status. Work-related health attributions can, in other words, be negative in spite of a person being in good health. Conversely, an individual can have symptoms of ill-health but believe that work has nothing to do with these symptoms. This discrepancy between health status and work-related health attributions may be due to early signs of health problems, or a conviction that the current work situation is not bene? ial to one’s health in the long run, bu t it is ultimately based on the individual’s evaluation of the situation. Figure 1 summarizes the relation between ill-health and work-related health attributions, and how they are expected to relate to work attitudes and turnover intentions. 1. 2. Consequences of work-related health attributions Expectancies and beliefs, of which work-related health attributions are one example, tend to affect attitudes and behaviors (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980; Holland et al. , 2002; Weiner, 1985).In addition, the value placed on an object of interest plays an important part in shaping the attitudes toward that object (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Since health is important and highly valued by most individuals, we expect that individuals with negative work-related health attributions also hold more negative attitudes towards work, such as lower job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and higher levels of turnover intention, compared to individuals with less negative work-related health attributions.In all employment relationships, it is the employer who is responsible for providing a decent work climate, preventing health risks at work, and making efforts to keep the employees healthy (Walters, 2002). Employees expect to stay healthy at work because of labor legislation which emphasizes the employers’ responsibility for occupational safety and health. Employers who take measures to safeguard the work environment show that they value their employees and care about their well-being, and reinforce the Figure 1. The relation between ill-health and work-related ealth attributions and their impact on work-related attitudes employees’ expectations of fair treatment in the employee-employer relationship. In response to such support from the organization, employees may develop more positive attitudes toward the job and increase their loyalty towards the organization (see Robinson et al. , 1994; Shore and Wayne, 1993). However, employees with negative work-rel ated health attributions probably hold their employer more or less responsible and exhibit strong negative reactions toward the organization (cf.Robinson and Morrison, 2000; Shore and Tetrick, 1994). Such reactions can include feelings of anger, disappointment, or resentment toward the party perceived as being responsible, which can be manifested as lowered satisfaction with the job and decreased commitment to the organization. Moreover, it has been argued that employees (especially those most quali? ed) tend to leave the company when they experience unfavorable working conditions (e. g. Hirschman, 1970; Pfeffer, 1998).The same might apply to individuals high on negative work-related health attributions; those who have the option may very well leave the organization if the employer does not take steps to remedy the conditions perceived to be threatening the individual’s health. We suggest that work-related health attributions should be taken into account when studying the rel ation between employee health and attitudes toward the organization, especially given that previous research on this relation has found differing results.However, the studies conducted consistently indicate that employee health may have a negative impact on job satisfaction, commitment and the intention to remain with the organization (see, for example, Leong et al. , 1996; Wright and Bonett, 2007). We believe that work-related health attributions make up an important part of the mechanism between employee health and its potential outcomes. 1. 3. The present studyThe purpose of the present study was to investigate the role of work-related health attributions in the context of mental distress and work-related attitudes (job satisfaction and organizational commitment) and behavior (turnover intention). We propose that low employee well-being and negative work-related health attributions, respectively, are associated with lower levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and higher levels of turnover intention.We also propose that work-related health attributions moderate the relation between mental distress and work-related outcomes, in the sense that the negative effect of ill-health on work-related attitudes is stronger among individuals who hold negative work-related health attributions than among those with more neutral work-related health attributions. Since work-related health attributions can be considered a rather new empirical construct, we analyze its conceptual relation to mental distress before going on to testing our propositions.Research has shown that characteristics of the work environment are important in shaping attitudes such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Fairbrother and Warn, 2001; Parker et al. , 2003), and turnover intention (Griffeth et al. , 2000; Lambert et al. , 2001). In order not to overestimate the effect of work-related health attributions on outcome variables, we control for factors describing the climate at work (job autonomy, quantitative role overload, qualitative role overload, workgroup cohesiveness, and job challenge), in addition to demographic characteristics (gender, age and education).The research model is graphically represented in Figure 2). Work-related health attributions 9 IJWHM 2,1 10 Figure 2. Research model 2. Method 2. 1. Participants and procedure Data were collected within the framework of a project investigating how to attract, develop and retain white-collar workers in the Swedish retail and wholesale sectors. A random sample of 1,589 individuals was drawn from the membership roster of the Union of Commercial Salaried Employees (HTF), which is af? liated with the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees (TCO).The HTF, which is the union representing white-collar employees in this particular sector, has a unionization rate of approximately 80 percent (Kjellberg, 2001). Questionnaires were mailed to the members’ homes during the spring of 2 002. A cover letter explained the general aim of the study and included information about compensation for participation in the study (a gift certi? cate was raf? ed off among the respondents) and that participation was voluntary. Participants returned their questionnaires in pre-addressed, postage-paid envelopes. Two follow-up mailings were administered to increase the response rate, one with a new questionnaire.The response rate after two follow-ups was 52 percent (n ? 829). After listwise deletion of missing data, the sample comprised 785 persons. The mean age of the participants was 44 years (SD ? 11), women made up 54 percent of the sample, 14 percent had a university exam, and the average organizational tenure was 11 years (SD ? 10). 2. 2. Measures Table I presents the correlations, mean values, standard deviations, and reliability estimates (Cronbach’s alpha) for all study variables. In general, the measures exhibited adequate reliability (alpha exceeding 0. 70), with the exception of qualitative role overload (alpha ? . 59). 2. 2. 1. Demographics. Gender (1 ? woman, 0 ? man) and education (1 ? university degree, 0 ? lower education) were assessed as dichotomous variables. Age was measured in years. 2 Mean SD Minimum Maximum Alpha 0. 54 0. 50 0 1 – 43. 57 1. 92 21 65 – Gender (woman) – Age 2 0. 06 – Education (University) 0. 01 2 0. 04 Job autonomy 2 0. 15 0. 13 Quantitative role overload 2 0. 08 0. 00 Qualitative role overload 2 0. 09 0. 05 Work group cohesiveness 2 0. 04 0. 04 Job challenge 2 0. 17 0. 15 Negative work-related health attributions 0. 01 2 0. 10 Mental distress 0. 12 2 0. 10 Job satisfaction 2 0. 03 0. 15Organizational commitment 2 0. 04 0. 23 Turnover intention 2 0. 03 2 0. 20 1 0. 14 0. 35 0 1 – – 2 0. 05 0. 00 2 0. 09 2 0. 02 2 0. 03 0. 02 2 0. 04 2 0. 08 2 0. 11 0. 08 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3. 54 0. 90 1 5 0. 78 3. 44 0. 91 1 5 0. 78 2. 22 0. 78 1 5 0. 59 3. 74 0. 96 1 5 0. 84 3. 57 0. 8 7 1 5 0. 74 2. 52 1. 08 1 5 0. 84 9. 19 5. 56 0 32 0. 88 3. 74 0. 91 1 5 0. 88 3. 08 0. 94 1 5 0. 71 – 2 0. 13 – 2 0. 08 0. 31 – 0. 32 2 0. 09 2 0. 13 – 0. 38 0. 14 0. 13 0. 35 – 2 0. 40 0. 42 0. 35 2 0. 35 2 0. 20 – 2 0. 37 0. 28 0. 27 2 0. 34 2 0. 26 0. 56 – 0. 63 2 0. 09 2 0. 11 0. 47 0. 55 2 0. 52 2 0. 49 – 0. 48 2 0. 02 0. 03 0. 8 0. 53 2 0. 34 2 0. 32 0. 71 – 2 0. 39 0. 10 0. 10 2 0. 35 2 0. 35 0. 50 0. 40 2 0. 65 2 0. 56 4 Notes: – Not applicable; for r . 0. 06, p , 0. 05; r . 0. 08, p , 0. 01; r . 0. 10, p , 0. 001 (n = 785) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Variable 2. 04 1. 06 1 5 0. 80 – 13 Work-related health attributions 11 Table I. Correlations and descriptive statistics for the variables in the analysis IJWHM 2,1 12 Table II. Results of con? rmatory factor analysis of work-related health attributions and mental distress 2. 2. 2. Work climate. All climate variables were measured using a ? ve-point Likert scale (1 ? strongly disagree; 5 ? trongly agree). Job autonomy was assessed with a ? three-item index (Sverke and Sjoberg, 1994), including items (e. g. â€Å"I have enough freedom as to how I do my work†) drawn from Hackman and Oldham (1975) and Walsh et al. (1980). Quantitative role overload was measured using a three-item scale (Beehr et al. , 1976), consisting of items such as â€Å"I often have too much to do in my job†. Qualitative role overload was measured with three items (e. g. â€Å"I consider my responsibilities to be unreasonable;† Sverke et al. , 1999). Three items drawn from Nystedt (1992) were used to assess work group cohesiveness (e. g. Members stick together in my work group†). Job challenge was measured with a three-item scale (e. g. â€Å"I’m learning new things all the time in my job†) developed by Hellgren et al. (1997). 2. 2. 3. Health-related variables. We used the short version of the General Health Questionn aire (GHQ-12) to measure mental distress (Goldberg and Williams, 1988). The 12 items (e. g. â€Å"Have you been feeling unhappy and depressed during the last two weeks? †) were scored on a scale ranging from 0 (never/hardly ever) to 3 (always/almost always). Work-related health attributions were measured with a three-item scale developed for the present study.The items (â€Å"I believe that my work affects my health in a negative way†; â€Å"I think I can continue to work as I do now and remain healthy in the long run† [reverse coded]; â€Å"If I had another job my health would probably be better†) were scored on a ? ve-point Likert scale (1 ? strongly disagree; 5 ? strongly agree). The scale measuring work-related health attributions demonstrated a satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha ? 0. 74), and we went on to investigate whether work-related health attributions and mental distress represented two distinct constructs. This was tes ted using con? rmatory factor analysis.Three subscales with four GHQ items in every scale were constructed (see Mathieu and Farr, 1991) creating three parallel indices. The GHQ subscales and the items measuring work-related health attributions were then subjected to the con? rmatory factor ? ? analysis procedures in Lisrel 8 (Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996). The chi-square value did not indicate a perfect ? t between the two-factor model and the data (see Table II), but since the chi-square test is sensitive to sample size (Bentler and Bonett, 1980), we also relied on other indicators to determine model ? t. The adjusted goodness-of-? t index ? ? AGFI; Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996), the normed ? t index (NFI; Bentler and Bonett, 1980), the Akaike measure (AIC; Akaike, 1987), the standardized root mean square ? ? residual (SRMR; Joreskog and Sorbom, 1996) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Browne and Cudeck, 1993) indicated that the two-factor model provided an improveme nt in ? t as compared to a model that tested for a single factor. Thus, our results indicate that work-related health attributions and mental distress represent two distinct constructs. The factor loadings ranged from 0. 78 to 0. 81 Model df x2 RMSEA SRMR AGFI AIC NFI Ddf Dx 2 Null 1 factor factors 15 9 8 2,851. 07* 426. 74* 7. 11* 0. 49 0. 24 0. 10 0. 42 0. 09 0. 04 0. 23 0. 64 0. 92 2,863. 07 450. 74 96. 11 0. 00 0. 83 0. 97 – 6 1 – 2,424. 33* 356. 63* Notes: * p , 0. 05; – not applicable for mental distress, and from 0. 73 to 0. 76 for work-related health attributions, indicating good local ? t. The inter-factor correlation was 0. 68. 2. 2. 4. Work attitudes. All attitude variables were measured using a ? ve-point Likert scale (1 ? strongly disagree; 5 ? strongly agree). Job satisfaction was assessed with a three-item measure (e. g. â€Å"I am satis? ed with my job†) developed by Hellgren et al. (1999) on the basis of Bray? ld and Rothe (1951). Organiz ational commitment was measured using three items (e. g. â€Å"The company means a lot to me personally†) from Allen and Meyer’s (1990) scale re? ecting the affective dimension of commitment. Three items were used to assess turnover intention (e. g. â€Å"I am actively looking for other jobs†). The scale is based on items from Lyons (1971) and Cammann et al. (1979), and ? modi? ed and translated to Swedish by Sjoberg and Sverke (2000). 2. 3. Analyses Three moderated hierarchical regressions were conducted with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention, respectively, as dependent variables.The interaction term between mental distress and work-related health attributions was formed by centering the predictors and calculating the product term, following the procedure described by Cohen et al. (2003). The control variables were entered in the ? rst (demographics) and second (work climate) steps. The main effects of mental distress and work- related health attributions were entered in the third and fourth step, respectively, while the interaction term was entered in the ? fth and last step. 3. Results Table III contains the results of the hierarchical multiple regression analyses.The demographic variables (gender, age, and education) explained 3 percent of the variance in job satisfaction. When the work climate variables were added in the second step, the total amount of explained variance increased substantially to 58 percent, and an additional 2 percent was explained by mental distress in the third step. In the fourth step, when negative work-related health attributions were entered, a total of 62 percent of the variance was explained (DR 2 ? 0. 02). However, the interaction term between mental distress and work-related health attributions (Step 5) did not contribute signi? antly to the explained variance. The regression coef? cients from the last step showed that women and those without a university degree were more satis? ed with their job. Furthermore, autonomy, quantitative overload, work group cohesiveness, and job challenge were positively related to job satisfaction. Of most importance to the present study was the ? nding that both mental distress and negative work-related health attributions were negatively related to job satisfaction and that they remained signi? cant predictors of job satisfaction when demographics and work climate variables were controlled for.In the next analysis, where organizational commitment was the dependent variable, the demographics explained 7 percent, the climate variables another 36 percent, and mental distress added 1 percent to the explained variance. Negative work-related health attributions added another 1 percent to the explained variance, whereas, again, the interaction effect was found to be non-signi? cant. Taken together, the model variables explained 43 percent of the variation in organizational commitment. All three demographics evidenced signi? cant effects in the last step; being a woman, beingWork-related health attributions 13 IJWHM 2,1 14 Table III. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses (standardized regression coef? cients from the last step) Dependent variable Step 1 Gender (woman) Age Education (university) DR 2 Step 2 Job autonomy Quantitative role overload Qualitative role overload Work group cohesiveness Job challenge DR 2 Step 3 Mental distress DR 2 Step 4 Negative work-related health attributions DR 2 Step 5 Mental distress* Negative work-related health ttributions DR 2 Model R 2 adjusted Job satisfaction Organizational commitment Turnover intention 0. 2*** 0. 02 2 0. 06** 0. 03*** 0. 10** 0. 14*** 2 0. 08** 0. 07* 2 0. 13*** 2 0. 11*** 0. 07* 0. 05*** 0. 36*** 0. 05* 2 0. 01 0. 14*** 0. 31*** 0. 55*** 0. 24*** 0. 04 0. 06 0. 12*** 0. 34*** 0. 36*** 2 0. 13** 2 0. 08* 2 0. 04 2 0. 09** 2 0. 16*** 0. 24*** 2 0. 11*** 0. 02*** 2 0. 05 0. 01**** 0. 11** 0. 04*** 2 0. 20*** 0. 02*** 2 0. 12*** 0. 01* ** 0. 35*** 0. 07*** 2 0. 04 0. 00 0. 63*** 2 0. 00 0. 00 0. 43*** 0. 06* 0. 00* 0. 39*** Notes: * p , 0. 05; ** p , 0. 01; *** p , 0. 001 older, and having a lower education were all associated with higher levels of organizational commitment.All climate variables except quantitative overload were positively related to organizational commitment. Mental distress was unrelated to organizational commitment, whereas negative work-related health attributions were negatively related to the criterion. The demographic variables explained 5 percent of the variance in turnover intention in the ? rst step and the work climate variables in Step 2 added 24 percent to the variance explained. Mental distress in Step 3 added 4 percent and negative work-related health attributions another 7 percent in the next step.In the last step, when the interaction term was included, the variance explained increased by 6 units and the total model explained 39 percent. The interaction term was signi? cant; indiv iduals high in mental distress and reporting negative work-related health attributions exhibited the strongest intentions to quit whereas those with low levels of distress and less negative work-related health attributions expressed the strongest willingness to stay within the organization. This indicates that it makes a difference for the intentions to turnover if an individual with high mental distress attributes it to work or not.There were small effects of the demographic variables, indicating that men, younger persons, and individuals with a university degree had stronger intentions to leave the organization. In addition, most work climate variables, as well as mental distress (those high in mental distress reported higher levels of turnover intentions), predicted turnover intention. The strongest standardized regression coef? cient was found for the relation between negative work-related health attributions and turnover intention. 4. DiscussionDespite the increased research in terest in work-related stress and health problems, little attention has been paid to whether, or to what extent, individuals’ attributions of ill-health due to work (making negative work-related health attributions) affects attitudes towards work and the organization. Those few studies that have investigated this phenomenon (see for example Ettner and Grzywacz, 2001) have not studied how these work-related health attributions contribute to the understanding of job satisfaction, organizational commitment and turnover intention.The present study indicates not only that the construct of negative work-related health attributions is distinct from subjective mental distress, but also that it has important implications for employee attitudes and behavioral intentions. Our results show that employees who reported negative work-related health attributions also expressed less satisfaction with their job, less commitment to the organization, and stronger intentions to leave the organiza tion – even after demographics, mental distress, and factors related to the work climate were controlled for.We proposed that there would be an interaction effect between mental distress and work-related health attributions on attitudes and turnover intention, such that the relation between mental distress and the outcome variables would be stronger for those with more negative work-related health attributions than for those not attributing their mental distress to their job. This proposition received partial support. While work-related health attributions failed to moderate the effects of mental distress on job satisfaction and organizational commitment, the interaction term was signi? ant for turnover intentions. This indicates that individuals with negative work-related health attributions and mental distress were more prone to leave the organization compared to individuals with the same level of mental distress but positive work-related health attributions. Hence, whether the individual attributes ill-health to work or not appears to be important for the effect of health status on outcomes, at least in the case of the intention to leave the organization.This result indicates that the concept of negative work-related health attributions may play an important role in explaining employees’ work-related behavioral intentions, and should be taken into account when the relation between health and outcomes is investigated. Another notable ? nding is that work-related health attributions were more important than mental distress for the prediction of work attitudes and withdrawal cognitions. In contrast to mental distress, which only predicted job satisfaction and turnover intentions, work-related health attributions predicted all three outcomes.That mental distress only appears to contribute to a limited extent is contrary to previous arguments that health status is important for employee work motivation and behavioral orientations (e. g. Hom, 2002). One explanation for our ? ndings may have to do with the fact that work-related health attributions concern perceived health risks that are associated with the overall work situation, whereas measures of ill-health, such as mental distress, may concern any aspect of an individual’s life, not only factors related to the job. As long as the individual does not hold negative work-related healthWork-related health attributions 15 IJWHM 2,1 16 attributions, it is conceivable that subjective health and well-being are only marginally predictive of attitudes towards work. Negative work-related health attributions may therefore be a better predictor of work-related attitudes and behaviors, and should be included in future research on work-related outcomes. The construct of work-related health attributions can thus have great practical utility, since it in a rather simple and direct way captures how individuals perceive that their work affects their health.This is also in agreement wi th Harter et al. (2003), who suggest that researchers have conceived employee well-being too broadly and often in a way which is not intuitively actionable for managers and employees. It is also important to note that negative work-related health attributions predicted work attitudes and turnover intention after controlling not only for mental distress and demographics, but also for characteristics of the psychological work climate.Our data from Swedish white-collar workers showed that, consistent with meta-analysis ? ndings (Parker et al. , 2003), job autonomy, role overload, work group cohesiveness, and job challenge were associated with lower levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The present study also goes beyond previous research by suggesting that the evident effects of work climate variables remained after subjective well-being and work-related health attributions had been taken into account.The fact that negative work-related health attributions emerged a s one of the strongest predictors of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention clearly indicates that models for the predicting of employee attitudes and behavior could be improved by the inclusion of work-related health attributions. The results from the present study and previous research (see for example ? European Foundation, 2001; Ettner and Grzywacz, 2001; Goransson et al. , 2002) indicate that attributions of work-related ill-health can be understood in terms of psychological contract theory (e. . Rousseau, 1989). Most employees expect that their employers will strive to provide a healthy workplace, and such an assumption is typically sustained by labor law regulations and collective bargaining agreements. If employees experience a work situation which they deem as likely to bring about ill-health, it will be in contrast to their expectations, and thus most likely be perceived as a breach of the psychological contract with the employer (see Robinson and Morrison, 2000).Perceptions of a breach of the psychological contract are likely to result in negative work-related attitudes and withdrawal behaviors (Davy et al. , 1997; Turnley and Feldman, 1999). The ? nding that negative work-related health attributions were associated with impaired job satisfaction, lower organizational commitment, and stronger turnover intention may be interpreted as the result of a perceived breach of the psychological contract. However, while psychological contract breach was not the main focus in the present study, future research may bene? from explicitly including this concept in the explanatory framework. 4. 1. Limitations and future research Although the results of the present study point to the relevance of the concept of work-related health attributions, our conclusions may be affected by a number of methodological issues. For instance, we utilized data from a single point in time, thus prohibiting the study of temporal order between negative wor k-related health attributions and its postulated consequences. However, cross-sectional research is a necessary ? rst step to empirically explore theoretical hypotheses before investments in ongitudinal data are fruitful (Spector, 1994), and two events must be found to co-vary with one another before the causal link can be explored. Furthermore, our results were based on Swedish white-collar employees in a particular service industry, and a replication of the present study using longitudinal data as well as data from different industrial sectors in different countries would be necessary before any ? rm conclusions concerning the generality of the ? ndings can be drawn. All variables were assessed using questionnaires, thus potentially making the results susceptible to mono-method bias (Campbell and Fiske, 1959).Even though meta-analytic research suggests that method variance represents less of a problem than has been assumed in the past (Crampton and Wagner, 1994), the use of other types of data, such as interviews or diaries, would contribute to a better understanding of the role played by work-related health attributions. In addition, while we controlled for a number of factors known to be related to job satisfaction (Loher et al. , 1985), organizational commitment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990), and turnover intention (Griffeth et al. 2000), it would be relevant to take additional control variables, such as personality characteristics, into account in order not to over-estimate the effects of work-related health attributions. Finally, only three potential outcomes of negative work-related health attributions were considered. Despite the consistent associations found between negative work-related health attributions and employee attitudes and turnover intention, it might be that negative work-related health attributions are less predictive of other factors, such as job performance, safety behavior, and more importantly, occupational injuries and sick-leave. . 2. Concluding remarks Despite these potential limitations, the results of the present study clearly suggest that the investigation of employees’ negative work-related health attributions is an important avenue for future research on work and well-being. The results suggest not only that individuals evaluate how work may affect their health and well-being, but also that such perceptions may have important implications for their attitudinal and behavioral orientations toward work.The measure of negative work-related health attributions could be used as a diagnostic instrument for identifying those individuals who are more likely than others to perceive health-threatening conditions at work. The construct can be useful for employers in order to identify and help employees who experience threats to their health due to their jobs. Given that power imbalances may inhibit the direct communication of interests with an employer (Rousseau, 2001), such that more vulnerable individuals, for instance temporary employees, are less likely to share ? nformation on health risks at work (Aronsson and Goransson, 1998), the collection of information regarding work-related health attributions could be one means for employees to communicate this important information with their employer. Work-related health attributions may also constitute a more direct way of assessing the effect of work on health, and may therefore be more useful as a complement to research which gathers information on aspects of the work situation in order to predict health.An important area for future research is how individuals may take these work-related health attributions into account when making decisions regarding their Work-related health attributions 17 IJWHM 2,1 18 work situation, such as changing work tasks, work setting, or even occupation. 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Sara Goransson can be contacted at: [email  protected] su. se To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprint[email  protected] com Or visit our web site for further details: www. emeraldinsight. com/reprints Work-related health attributions 21